Caffeine and Tea Myth - Chado Article

This is a must read blog in Cha Dao - a Journal of Tea and Culture
Article by Nigel Melican http://chadao.blogspot.com/2008/02/caffeine-and-tea-myth-and-reality.html

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 06, 2008

CAFFEINE AND TEA: Myth and Reality
by NIGEL MELICAN

EDITOR'S NOTE: When it comes to the topic of caffeine in tea, there is no end to the generating of myth and indeed of science fiction. Perhaps the most persistent canard is the one that alleges that tea can be 'mostly' decaffeinated (80% is, I think, the number most often quoted) by a quick preliminary infusion in hot water (30 seconds is the duration typically recommended). While one cannot hope to dispel so-called 'common wisdom' overnight, even by the demonstration of clear scientific fact, it is surely a step in the right direction to put the data into public circulation. That is why I have asked Nigel Melican, founder and Managing Director of Teacraft Ltd, to offer us a post on this and other aspects of caffeine in tea. Nigel is, quite simply, one of the world's leading authorities on tea; readers of CHA DAO will recall with pleasure the massive work of bibliography that he contributed to this blog in an earlier post; today's entry is, I think, destined to become a standard compendium of information on the topic.


I. DECAFFEINATING TEA

Tea contains two physiologically active compounds: caffeine and theanine. Moderate caffeine consumption is perceived by some in western countries to border on the dangerous, and many consumers, rather than abstaining entirely from drinking tea, maté, or coffee, demand a decaffeinated version. In the case of tea, this is provided commercially by a process that uses organic solvents to remove most of the offending caffeine (along with other compounds); the result, unfortunately, is at best an indifferent product. (Ironically, the very caffeine so removed is a valuable by-product eagerly sought by soft-drink manufacturers to enhance their sugary beverages.)

As well as reducing product quality, commercial decaffeination is an expensive process that takes hours of production time and doubles the raw material price of a pound of tea. How likely is it therefore that the accountants at Lipton and similar packers would have overlooked a simple and inexpensive process that removes 80% of caffeine in 30 seconds? Yet this myth exists and is propagated daily by retailers and tea gurus without any other basis than that they wish it were true, therefore it must be. So: what, then, are the facts?

In 1996, Monique Hicks, Peggy Hsieh and Leonard Bell published a peer-reviewed scientific paper recording precise time related extraction of caffeine from tea using a modern detection technique (HPLC). This paper, 'Tea preparation and its influence on methylxanthine concentration,' appeared in Food Research International Vol 29, Nos 3-4, pp. 325-330. (FRI is copyright of the Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology). Methylxanthines caffeine, theobromine and theophyllin all occur in tea and have similar physiological action, but in tea caffeine is the prominent methylxanthine.

In summary: Hicks et al measured the caffeine (plus theobromine) content of six different teas (three bagged and three loose-leaf, including black, oolong and green types). They measured caffeine-extraction in boiling water when steeped for 5 minutes, 10 minutes and 15 minutes. They replicated all their extractions three times to eliminate experimental error. Extrapolation of their data gives the following caffeine-extraction percentages below 5 minutes (averaged over all tea types and formats); note that while loose tea extracted marginally more slowly than tea-bag tea, it made only a couple of percentage-points' difference:

30 seconds: 9% caffeine removal
1 minute: 18% caffeine removal
2 minutes: 34% caffeine removal
3 minutes: 48% caffeine removal
4 minutes: 60% caffeine removal
5 minutes: 69% caffeine removal
10 minutes: 92% caffeine removal
15 minutes: 100% caffeine removal

Clearly to achieve the 80% target we must wash our tea for more than five minutes! This is very much at odds with the mythical '30- or 45-second hot wash to remove 80% of the caffeine' advice, as a 30-second initial wash of the tea will actually leave in place 91% of the original caffeine!

Before the publication of this work by Hicks et al, Professor Michael Spiro and his group had already done some ground-breaking physical chemistry on tea. In their paper, 'Tea and the Rate of Its Infusion' (published in Chemistry in New Zealand 1981, pp 172-174), they disclosed caffeine concentration diffusing into water (4g loose leaf -- it will have been a CTC small fannings type -- in 200 ml water held at a constant 80 degrees C, and stirred with a magnetic stirrer). Their first data point is at 90 seconds, and shows 49% caffeine removed from leaf (i.e. into the wash water). Extrapolating from Spiro's plot gives:

30 seconds: 20% caffeine removal
1 minute: 33% caffeine removal
2 minutes: 64% caffeine removal
3 minutes: 76% caffeine removal
4 minutes: 85% caffeine removal
5 minutes: 88% caffeine removal
10 minutes: 99% caffeine removal
15 minutes: 100% caffeine removal

Again we would have to be washing our tea for a long period – three to four minutes to achieve 80% decaffeination. While a 30-second 'wash' under Spiro's rather extreme laboratory conditions (small leaf CTC tea, loose in the 'pot' rather than in a teabag, at constant temperature and stirred vigorously) leached 20% of caffeine rather than the 9% yielded by Hicks's more normal steeping, neither of these scientifically conducted findings comes anywhere near the 30-second/ 80%-decaffeination claims perpetuated as an Internet Myth.


II. CAFFEINE LEVELS IN VARIOUS TEAS

Another much-repeated claim is that black tea is high in caffeine, green tea is lower, and white tea (through the naturalness of its manufacture it is implied) has next to none. While suiting the sales pitch of some tea vendors this information is so wrong as to verge on the fraudulent.

Three scientifically verifiable facts are:

1. Caffeine level varies naturally in types of tea and levels in one type may overlap with another type
2. Black and green tea manufactured from leaf from the same bushes on the same day will have virtually the same caffeine levels (within +/- 0.3%)
3. For a given bush, the finer the plucking standard, the higher the caffeine level

Actual caffeine level in tea is highest:

• when the tea is derived from buds and young first leaf tips (thus white tea has a high caffeine level)
• when the bush is assamica type rather than sinensis (can be 33% higher caffeine, thus African black tea tends to be higher than China black tea)
• when the bush is clonal VP rather than seedling (can be 100% higher caffeine, thus new plantings in Africa are higher than old seedling plantings in Asia),
• when the plant is given a lot of nitrogen fertilizer (as in Japan), and
• during fast growing seasons.

Thus tea derived from older leaf, China type seedling bush, under-fertilized husbandry and in autumn season will naturally be lowest in caffeine. Georgian and Turkish tea falls into this category: expect only 1 to 1.5% caffeine in them, compared with the usual 3% in retail teas. Tea from well-fertilized fast-growing young tips of African clonal tea can often have 5-6% caffeine.

The above summary disregards the changes in caffeine level (albeit smaller than genetic, edaphic and climatic mediated changes) produced during tea processing. Those interested in the topic of caffeine levels in various types of tea may be interested in some experimental process-runs undertaken in the Teacraft ECM System for precision miniature tea manufacture -- 'the tea factory in a box.' This system allows any environmental variable to be controlled to a set value while the other variables are held rock-solid -- and gained the American Society of Agricultural Engineers' AE50 Award for 'outstanding technological innovation.' (Too expensive for home use, I fear.)

EXPERIMENT 1: Effect of wither conditions on caffeine level. The same leaf was put into all experimental conditions; all leaf was fine 'two leaves and a bud' standard; and was a named VP clone.

Fast wither (8 hours to 70% moisture content):
Wither at 15 degrees C: caffeine 3.20%
Wither at 25 degrees C: caffeine 3.45%
Wither at 35 degrees C: caffeine 3.30 %

Slow wither (18 hours to 70% moisture content):
Wither at 15 degrees C: caffeine 3.10%
Wither at 25 degrees C: caffeine 3.65%
Wither at 35 degrees C: caffeine 3.43 %

A quadratic response in each set, with the highest caffeine produced by slow wither at moderate temperature (also, by gut feel, the tea maker’s favorite conditions) and demonstrating that the field is not the only determinant of caffeine level in the cup.

EXPERIMENT 2: Effect of length of wither on caffeine level (hours to 70% moisture content). 2L&B hybrid seedling leaf was used; each run was replicated and the means are also shown.

10 hours: 3.20, 3.23% = 3.22%
14 hours: 3.38, 3.41% = 3.40%
18 hours: 3.38, 3.47% = 3.43%
22 hours: 3.50, 3.52% = 3.51%
30 hours: 3.53, 3.58% = 3.56%

Straight-line response, with long withering producing the highest caffeine by 0.34% over slow wither.

EXPERIMENT 3: Effect of fermentation (oxidation) duration (minutes) on caffeine level (average of four clones).

0 minutes: 3.20%
30 minutes: 3.02%
45 minutes: 2.98%
60 minutes: 2.88%
75 minutes: 2.80%
90 minutes: 2.72%

Again, a straight-line response with oxidation, unlike caffeine boosting withering, slightly reducing caffeine level in black tea. Note i) that green tea is neither withered nor oxidized, and ii) white tea is not oxidized but has a very long wither

FIELD DATA: Some hard data from published sources

Seasonal variation in the natural caffeine level of Kenya Tea clones averaged for the four quarters:








Here caffeine level is lowest in all the clones during the slow growth period of July. (Note Clone 4 variation of more than 100% from slow growth season to fast growth in December quarter.)

Again from Kenya, consider the absolute minimum/maximum caffeine measurements through the year:

Clone 1: 1.2 & 3.2%
Clone 2: 1.3 & 3.4%
Clone 3: 1.7 & 3.9%
Clone 4: 1.9 & 5.0%

These natural variations across time make it difficult the assess whether a particular tea or tea-type is a high-caffeine or low-caffeine type, particularly with a single 'snapshot' analysis, as is often listed even by enlightened vendors on the Internet. For example, should we consider Clone 4 a high- or low-caffeine type?

I have shown here a few of the factors (natural and man-made) that can change and determine caffeine level in a made tea. Other important factors that influence the level are the level of nutrition (which goes up with nitrogen in the soil) and the degree of leaf shading which increases caffeine (though it is applied, in Japan, to increase theanine).

All of this goes to show that quoting any particular caffeine percentage for a given tea type, as many people do, should be fringed with caveats, and the exact data provided as to how it was processed and when it was grown. At best (using HPLC analysis), a precise and accurate caffeine-content measure is but a snapshot in time. And in the main, none of this information is available to the tea producer, let alone to the seller.


III. SOLVENTS AND DECAFFEINATION

Any solvent used to remove caffeine will also remove other chemical compounds from tea. The completely-targeted solvent does not exist, though some are better than others. Antioxidant polyphenols (flavanols) -- present as catechins in green tea, and in black tea either as oxidised catechins (= theaflavins) or as condensed polymerised oxidised catechins (= thearubigins) -- are partially soluble in the decaffeinating solvents, though as you would expect these are chosen to maximize caffeine solubilty and minimize polyphenol solubility. Typical data is 82% removal of polyphenols by (less expensive) ethyl acetate decaffeination, and only 8% by (more expensive) supercritical CO2 decaffeination.

The methylene chloride solvent route is not allowed by the FDA for tea decaffeination (though bizarrely it is for coffee!). It is however permitted and used in Europe, and the polyphenol retention is midway between that of ethyl acetate and of supercritical CO2. Probably the best decaffeinated tea is made by applying the extraction process during tea manufacture, rather than after it. This is done in a few factories in Malawi and Zimbabwe, and produces a decaffeinated cup that is virtually indistinguishable from normal tea from the factory. Such decaffeinated tea does not appear in the USA for several reasons: it is a CTC process; the robust colour and taste demand milk; and it utilizes methylene chloride solvent.

Consumers demanding decaffeination for the sake of their health or their sleep have I suspect been subjected more to caffeine excess from coffee than from tea. Coffee-, maté- and cola-derived caffeine can deliver a jolt that tea, be it ever so strong, does not deliver, though when extracted the caffeine from all these sources is chemically the same. The natural complexing of caffeine in tea (it binds with tea polyphenols during steeping) gives a slower and more gentle uptake in the stomach and hence to the brain; and I suspect that the relaxing effect of tea's own mind-calming amino acid (theanine) also contributes to the body's reacting more gently to tea caffeine than to coffee caffeine.


IV. OTHER INFORMATION ON THE WEB

http://nobleharbor.com/tea/caffiene.html [sic]
This page supports the information given above – summarizes the Hicks et al paper, and in places borrows some of my own data, with a few (unimportant) errors. It debunks some of the popular caffeine myths and concludes 'all teas have roughly similar caffeine contents, and one cannot rely on the belief that green tea has less caffeine, as asserted by many popular claims.'

http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/phytochemicals/tea/
The Linus Pauling Institute gives a fairly inconclusive comment on the level of caffeine in tea showing data (from just 20 snapshot analyses) that the green teas they analyzed varied from 40 to 211 mg/liter, while the black teas varied from 177 to 303 mg/liter -- a larger and more representative sample of the worlds teas could have would have increased these ranges and the overlap considerably. However, LPI do suggest that the popular belief of low caffeine level in White Tea is misplaced: 'Buds and young tea leaves have been found to contain higher levels of caffeine than older leaves, suggesting that the caffeine content of some white teas may be slightly higher than that of green teas.'
POSTED BY CORAX AT 7:44 PM

Commercial Tea Blending

Here is an article back sometime ago in Fresh Cup Magazine...

Blending is the key for a cup of fine tea

MILLERTON, NY — Harney & Sons' teashop and tasting room, in this small town two hours' drive from New York City, is a tea drinker's delight. Located behind its own garden just off Main Street, it is a pleasant, cheerful place to enjoy a cup of fine tea, along with a sandwich or a sweetmeat. More than that, it is a place where customers can sample the company's gourmet tea varieties, which number around 250.

John Harney, the founder of the company, has been in the tea business for 36 years. Today, he still runs the company, along with his sons, Michael and Paul. The company's products include black, green, white and oolong teas, herbals, floral and organic teas. Many are exclusive blends. The teas are offered in loose form, in bags or in sachets, and are distributed to gourmet stores and hotels.

Harney & Sons buys fine teas from all over the world. The teas are blended and packaged in the company's plant, which is located, just outside town, about a mile (1.5 km) from the teashop. Blending is an important part of the operation, as about 100 of the company's 250 varieties of tea are blends, notes Michael Harney. A blend typically consists of the basic tea and small quantities of up to four other ingredients, such as flowers and nuts, plus a fruit flavor, such as blackcurrant, lemon or passion fruit, which is added in liquid form.

In recent years, the demand for Harney's teas had grown to the point where the plant's two blending machines were barely able to keep up with the increasing demand, so in 2004, the company installed a horizontal, rotary mixer that has proved more than adequate for its needs. "Our business is growing at a rate of 15-20% a year and the mixing operation was a bottleneck," says Michael Harney. "The new machine has increased our throughput dramatically and has allowed us to keep pace with the growth."

Manufactured by Munson Machinery Co., Inc., Utica, NY, the Model 700-TS-40-SS rotary batch mixer has a capacity of 40 ft³ (1.13 m³) which, at tea's bulk density of 19 lb/ft³ (304 kg/m³), equates to 760 lb (345 kg) per batch, versus 300 lb (136 kg) for each of the old blenders.

However, productivity is much higher, since the new machine has a batch cycle time of only about two hours, including cleaning, says Harney, whereas "We could do only two batches per day (in an 8 h shift) with each of the old blenders." He adds that the new machine is not only bigger and faster, but "We get a better mix of the flavors. It's important that we get a thorough mix, so that the flavor is consistent from batch to batch."

The Munson blender is a stainless steel, horizontal drum that is supported at either end by trunion rings. It has a stationary inlet at one end and a stationary outlet with a discharge gate at the other end. Harney receives tea in bags of various sizes, typically in the range of 85-100 lb (39-45 kg). The bags are manually loaded directly into the blender via a specially designed flared hopper that is attached to the inlet. Dry additives are weighed separately and added to the batch.

A typical batch consists of 600-700 lb (272-318 kg) of tea, plus 5-10 lb (2.3-4.5 kg) of solid additives and about 3 wt.% (roughly 20 lb or 9 kg) of a liquid flavor. Munson supplied a pressure-pot system to introduce liquid flavorings into a batch. Liquid is sprayed into the rotating batch during the mixing process via a spray nozzle located midway along the drum.

As the drum rotates, mixing flights or baffles tumble the batch in a multi-directional manner, so that the action is fast, yet gentle to avoid damaging the product. When mixing is completed, the operator opens the plug valve on the discharge gate while the machine continues to rotate. The baffles move the batch toward the outlet, so that essentially 100% of the product is discharged.

The mixing time is 5-7 min, versus up to 45 min for the 300 lb (136 kg) blenders, says Harney. He points out that one reason the older blenders take longer is that they have no flavor bar for liquids. Instead, liquid is added manually at the start of a mixing operation.

Since all of the product is discharged, the machine is easy to clean, says Harney. Also, he notes that the new machine was supplied with two additional access doors, one on each side of the drum. These allow operators to reach all parts of the interior easily.

Thorough cleaning is vital to the company's business, as it is important to avoid any carryover of a flavor from one batch to another. The company uses ethyl acetate to purge the flavor bar, then tumbles some left-over tea in the blender to absorb the vapors. After this tea is discharged, the machine is vacuumed to remove residual odors.

Cleaning the old blenders is more troublesome, says Harney. For a start, not all the product is discharged and the residue has to be removed by vacuum. Access to the interior of the machine is more difficult. As for the odor, "we just let it air out and this takes time," he says.

Blended batches are discharged from the blender into 50 lb capacity (27 kg) cardboard boxes for transfer to the packing lines. The company has several automated packing lines for teabags and one for loose tea, which is packed manually in 1 lb (0.5 kg) or ½ lb (0.25 kg) tins.

Harney & Sons first considered a 10 ft³ (0.28 m³) mixer but opted for the larger machine after discussions with Michael Sfugaras of Munson's local representative, PME Equipment, Flanders, NJ. Sfugaras points out that a 40 ft³ (1.13 m³) blender offers 400% greater blending capacity than a 10 ft³ (0.28 ³) machine at only 30-40% higher cost, and it can process batches down to 10 percent of rated capacity with no loss in efficiency.

Harney still uses one of the old mixers to meet demand. Says Mike Harney: "The way our business is growing, we will probably buy another rotary mixer within three years."

San Clemente Community Market, Co-Op Style

Sam Olmstead is going to go down as the visionary for the Co-Op in San Clemente. Nay-sayers, myopic thinkers, please step aside as this vision is one passionate to many, including myself and I will work to help see it through.

If you live close to San Clemente and will donate your time to speed up the process to bring a co-op to San Clemente, please visit www.sanclementemarket.com and connect today to meet next week.

In the mean time, we can educate ourselves more on co-op's on www.foodcoop500.com. At this point, that is what is most important to share as there is much to do before we get too excited on what greatness is to come. This is the time to buckle down and work together to get it done!

In health,

Desiree Nelson

My Debut in Winestyles Uncorked Magazine

Tea Is Her Specialty

Interview with Desiree Nelson, Independent Tea Consultant and Sales Manager for QTrade Teas & Herbs
by CHAD COHEN

When Desiree Nelson started working at The Ritz-Carlton in Laguna Niguel, California, she had no idea she would inadver- tently find her calling in life: tea. It was here that she was first introduced to loose-leaf-tea and became enamored with the tradition and celebratory style associated with it. Business discussions take place over tea, in many cul- tures it is a central part of their homes, and, of course, there is the English style of tea. Desiree became determined to learn every- thing possible about tea, which, besides wa- ter, is the most popular drink in the world.

What does it mean to be a consultant for tea?
I am certified with the Specialty Tea Institute, have owned and operated my own brand of tea salons and also am the sales manager of QTrade Teas & Herbs, a leading ingredient provider and contract blender to the specialty tea and coffee industry. I specialize in improving tea busi- nesses or helping to develop a company’s concept and direction, which is currently my role with WineStyles. And, of course, I have served millions of pots and cups of tea.

How is tea similar to wine?
Both are great with food pairings and have complex layers of flavor. I recently had the pleasure of having an aged oolong, which is similar to an aged port and was quite spectacu- lar. Also, the climate and region the crop is
grown in plays equally important roles in both products and because of weather, the crop varies from year to year.

What is your favorite tea?
Organic white monkey, also known as Bai Hou, which is a high-grown Chinese tea.

What are some trends in the industry today?
Most people would be surprised by how many teenagers take to tea. Additionally, it’s become popular to have a nice fruit-blended tea (a tisane) with small pieces of candy as a dessert — it’s a combination of a serious and “foofy” beverage that is very enjoyable. I would also keep a lookout for organic and biodynamic teas as they will become more popular in the next decade. Bulk tea sales and places to buy them are on the rise and coming to your neighborhood soon.

What advice do you have if you are just starting to drink tea?
Start with what you are comfortable with and think about what you might enjoy: a for- mal single estate, a blended fruit or flavored tea, an herbal, a functional blend or tincture and think about the ways you want to cele- brate with it. It is also important to learn what the differences are in tea, from the Camellia plant to various herbal plants used.

september/october2010 Winestyles Franchise / Uncorked

Black tea contains more fluoride than ever thought

Article 07/15/10
FoodConsumer
Thanks to Adagio for posting this article!


Black tea may contain a higher concentration of fluoride than previously thought, accoridng to a new study cited in a press release by Medical College of Geogia.

Dr. Gary Whiteford of the School of Dentistry, co-author of the study, suggests that heavy tea drinkers could get in trouble even though drinking a couple of tea a day may not pose a risk.

Early studies found black tea contains 1 to 5 milligrams of fluoride per liter, but the new study showed fluoride in black tea can be up to 9 milligrams per liter, almost doubling the early estimate.

The findings were presented yesterday at the 2010 International Association of Dental Research Conference in Barcelona, Spain.

Fluoride is believed to help prevent dental cavities, but over-exposure to it or long term ingestion of excessive amounts is considered a risk. According to the release, an average person can safely ingest 2 to 3 milligrams a day through fluorinated drinking water, toothpaste and food. However, serious bone health can result from ingesting about 20 milligrams a day over a period of 10 or more years.

The findings came after Dr. Whitford examined four patients who suffered advanced skeletal fluorosis - a condition caused by excessive ingestion of fluoride and characterized by joint and bone pain and damage. These patients had one thing in common: they drank 1 to 2 gallons of tea every day for 10 to 30 years.

Certain tea leaves contain fluoride at a level ranging from 600 to more than 1,000 milligrams per kilogram of leaves, Dr. Whitford found. Tea leaves also contain similarly higher levels of aluminum, which is considered neuron-toxic.

The detection method makes a difference. Early methods could account for the amount of fluoride as aluminum fluoride. Dr. Whitford's method can measure that amount of fluoride as aluminum fluoride.

The take-home message is that excessively drinking black for a long term can cause fluoride poisoning.

By David Liu

zooming off to vegas for the final sti course

This is an interesting post, that I have not had time to do, say and post - so why not look at Brendan's comments on T Ching?
I would love to see you comments.
http://www.tching.com/2010/07/zooming-off-to-vegas-for-the-final-sti-course/#comment-78135

US, Canada to import more Nilgiri tea

P S Sundar
First Published : 05 Mar 2010 03:48:00 AM IST
Last Updated : 05 Mar 2010 07:22:14 AM IST

COONOOR: Concluding its four-day intensive tour of Nilgiri tea areas on Thursday, a team of leading importers from the US and Canada has indicated the possibility of increased purchases of Nilgiri tea in coming months.
“Overall, we had a positive experience in Nilgiris. We are impressed with the quality of Nilgiri tea, cultivation and manufacture process, ISO certifications, worker welfare measures, including school, hospital, housing and crèche, fair trade practices, rain forest norms and ethical partnership. We will consider importing higher volume of Nilgiris tea,” Manik Jayakumar, team leader, told Express at Glendale Estate here after interacting with K Gopal Krishnan (Glendale director), K V Shenai (group manager) and K Rajmohan (general manager). “In particular, we will be supporting speciality teas like those grown under frost impact and in cold season, teas that suit our making Ice Tea which is highly popular with our consumers, silver tips and white tea, organic tea, tulsi tea and decaffeinated tea,” he confirmed.

“Since our consumers prefer ‘selfdrinking tea’ (tea without milk and sugar), we have advised producers here to offer teas whose liquor will have more colour, stronger body and higher flavour. We pay good prices for quality teas. Price is not the only factor that determines our intake,” he disclosed.

“We produce Masala chai that is drunk with milk and honey. We have been importing Nilgiri tea for 13 years, but this is my first visit here. Arising from this, we plan to import 30 to 40 percent more tea from here,” said John Simmons, president, Third Street Chai.

Meltdown helps industry
GLOBAL economic recession has done some good for tea, much to the delight of Nilgiris producers! “Since tea is cheaper than coffee, many consumers in the US have switched over to tea due to recession.
In the current fiscal ending this month, there has been mentionable increase in useful enquiries for tea from the US, compared to last year. Similar impact has been felt in our shipments to Europe,” said K Gopal Krishnan, director, Glendale Estate.

“The visiting US-Canada importers’ team has left hopes with us for increased shipments to those countries next fiscal. We have all the varieties of teas these importers have been seeking, he told Express.